PERLIPC(1) Perl Programmers Reference Guide PERLIPC(1)
NAME
perlipc - Perl interprocess communication (signals, fifos, pipes, safe
subprocesses, sockets, and semaphores)
DESCRIPTION
The basic IPC facilities of Perl are built out of the good old Unix
signals, named pipes, pipe opens, the Berkeley socket routines, and SysV
IPC calls. Each is used in slightly different situations.
Signals
Perl uses a simple signal handling model: the %SIG hash contains names
or references of user-installed signal handlers. These handlers will be
called with an argument which is the name of the signal that triggered
it. A signal may be generated intentionally from a particular keyboard
sequence like control-C or control-Z, sent to you from another process,
or triggered automatically by the kernel when special events transpire,
like a child process exiting, your own process running out of stack
space, or hitting a process file-size limit.
For example, to trap an interrupt signal, set up a handler like this:
our $shucks;
sub catch_zap {
my $signame = shift;
$shucks++;
die "Somebody sent me a SIG$signame";
}
$SIG{INT} = __PACKAGE__ . "::catch_zap";
$SIG{INT} = \&catch_zap; # best strategy
Prior to Perl 5.8.0 it was necessary to do as little as you possibly
could in your handler; notice how all we do is set a global variable and
then raise an exception. That's because on most systems, libraries are
not re-entrant; particularly, memory allocation and I/O routines are
not. That meant that doing nearly anything in your handler could in
theory trigger a memory fault and subsequent core dump - see "Deferred
Signals (Safe Signals)" below.
The names of the signals are the ones listed out by "kill -l" on your
system, or you can retrieve them using the CPAN module IPC::Signal.
You may also choose to assign the strings "IGNORE" or "DEFAULT" as the
handler, in which case Perl will try to discard the signal or do the
default thing.
On most Unix platforms, the "CHLD" (sometimes also known as "CLD")
signal has special behavior with respect to a value of "IGNORE".
Setting $SIG{CHLD} to "IGNORE" on such a platform has the effect of not
creating zombie processes when the parent process fails to wait() on its
child processes (i.e., child processes are automatically reaped).
Calling wait() with $SIG{CHLD} set to "IGNORE" usually returns -1 on
such platforms.
Some signals can be neither trapped nor ignored, such as the KILL and
STOP (but not the TSTP) signals. Note that ignoring signals makes them
disappear. If you only want them blocked temporarily without them
getting lost you'll have to use the "POSIX" module's sigprocmask.
Sending a signal to a negative process ID means that you send the signal
to the entire Unix process group. This code sends a hang-up signal to
all processes in the current process group, and also sets $SIG{HUP} to
"IGNORE" so it doesn't kill itself:
# block scope for local
{
local $SIG{HUP} = "IGNORE";
kill HUP => -getpgrp();
# snazzy writing of: kill("HUP", -getpgrp())
}
Another interesting signal to send is signal number zero. This doesn't
actually affect a child process, but instead checks whether it's alive
or has changed its UIDs.
unless (kill 0 => $kid_pid) {
warn "something wicked happened to $kid_pid";
}
Signal number zero may fail because you lack permission to send the
signal when directed at a process whose real or saved UID is not
identical to the real or effective UID of the sending process, even
though the process is alive. You may be able to determine the cause of
failure using $! or "%!".
unless (kill(0 => $pid) || $!{EPERM}) {
warn "$pid looks dead";
}
You might also want to employ anonymous functions for simple signal
handlers:
$SIG{INT} = sub { die "\nOutta here!\n" };
SIGCHLD handlers require some special care. If a second child dies
while in the signal handler caused by the first death, we won't get
another signal. So must loop here else we will leave the unreaped child
as a zombie. And the next time two children die we get another zombie.
And so on.
use POSIX ":sys_wait_h";
$SIG{CHLD} = sub {
while ((my $child = waitpid(-1, WNOHANG)) > 0) {
$Kid_Status{$child} = $?;
}
};
# do something that forks...
Be careful: qx(), system(), and some modules for calling external
commands do a fork(), then wait() for the result. Thus, your signal
handler will be called. Because wait() was already called by system() or
qx(), the wait() in the signal handler will see no more zombies and will
therefore block.
The best way to prevent this issue is to use waitpid(), as in the
following example:
use POSIX ":sys_wait_h"; # for nonblocking read
my %children;
$SIG{CHLD} = sub {
# don't change $! and $? outside handler
local ($!, $?);
while ( (my $pid = waitpid(-1, WNOHANG)) > 0 ) {
delete $children{$pid};
cleanup_child($pid, $?);
}
};
while (1) {
my $pid = fork();
die "cannot fork" unless defined $pid;
if ($pid == 0) {
# ...
exit 0;
} else {
$children{$pid}=1;
# ...
system($command);
# ...
}
}
Signal handling is also used for timeouts in Unix. While safely
protected within an "eval{}" block, you set a signal handler to trap
alarm signals and then schedule to have one delivered to you in some
number of seconds. Then try your blocking operation, clearing the alarm
when it's done but not before you've exited your "eval{}" block. If it
goes off, you'll use die() to jump out of the block.
Here's an example:
my $ALARM_EXCEPTION = "alarm clock restart";
eval {
local $SIG{ALRM} = sub { die $ALARM_EXCEPTION };
alarm 10;
flock($fh, 2) # blocking write lock
|| die "cannot flock: $!";
alarm 0;
};
if ($@ && $@ !~ quotemeta($ALARM_EXCEPTION)) { die }
If the operation being timed out is system() or qx(), this technique is
liable to generate zombies. If this matters to you, you'll need to do
your own fork() and exec(), and kill the errant child process.
For more complex signal handling, you might see the standard POSIX
module. Lamentably, this is almost entirely undocumented, but the
ext/POSIX/t/sigaction.t file from the Perl source distribution has some
examples in it.
Handling the SIGHUP Signal in Daemons
A process that usually starts when the system boots and shuts down when
the system is shut down is called a daemon (Disk And Execution MONitor).
If a daemon process has a configuration file which is modified after the
process has been started, there should be a way to tell that process to
reread its configuration file without stopping the process. Many daemons
provide this mechanism using a "SIGHUP" signal handler. When you want to
tell the daemon to reread the file, simply send it the "SIGHUP" signal.
The following example implements a simple daemon, which restarts itself
every time the "SIGHUP" signal is received. The actual code is located
in the subroutine code(), which just prints some debugging info to show
that it works; it should be replaced with the real code.
#!/usr/bin/perl
use v5.36;
use POSIX ();
use FindBin ();
use File::Basename ();
use File::Spec::Functions qw(catfile);
$| = 1;
# make the daemon cross-platform, so exec always calls the script
# itself with the right path, no matter how the script was invoked.
my $script = File::Basename::basename($0);
my $SELF = catfile($FindBin::Bin, $script);
# POSIX unmasks the sigprocmask properly
$SIG{HUP} = sub {
print "got SIGHUP\n";
exec($SELF, @ARGV) || die "$0: couldn't restart: $!";
};
code();
sub code {
print "PID: $$\n";
print "ARGV: @ARGV\n";
my $count = 0;
while (1) {
sleep 2;
print ++$count, "\n";
}
}
Deferred Signals (Safe Signals)
Before Perl 5.8.0, installing Perl code to deal with signals exposed you
to danger from two things. First, few system library functions are re-
entrant. If the signal interrupts while Perl is executing one function
(like malloc(3) or printf(3)), and your signal handler then calls the
same function again, you could get unpredictable behavior--often, a core
dump. Second, Perl isn't itself re-entrant at the lowest levels. If
the signal interrupts Perl while Perl is changing its own internal data
structures, similarly unpredictable behavior may result.
There were two things you could do, knowing this: be paranoid or be
pragmatic. The paranoid approach was to do as little as possible in
your signal handler. Set an existing integer variable that already has
a value, and return. This doesn't help you if you're in a slow system
call, which will just restart. That means you have to "die" to
longjmp(3) out of the handler. Even this is a little cavalier for the
true paranoiac, who avoids "die" in a handler because the system is out
to get you. The pragmatic approach was to say "I know the risks, but
prefer the convenience", and to do anything you wanted in your signal
handler, and be prepared to clean up core dumps now and again.
Perl 5.8.0 and later avoid these problems by "deferring" signals. That
is, when the signal is delivered to the process by the system (to the C
code that implements Perl) a flag is set, and the handler returns
immediately. Then at strategic "safe" points in the Perl interpreter
(e.g. when it is about to execute a new opcode) the flags are checked
and the Perl level handler from %SIG is executed. The "deferred" scheme
allows much more flexibility in the coding of signal handlers as we know
the Perl interpreter is in a safe state, and that we are not in a system
library function when the handler is called. However the implementation
does differ from previous Perls in the following ways:
Long-running opcodes
As the Perl interpreter looks at signal flags only when it is about
to execute a new opcode, a signal that arrives during a long-running
opcode (e.g. a regular expression operation on a very large string)
will not be seen until the current opcode completes.
If a signal of any given type fires multiple times during an opcode
(such as from a fine-grained timer), the handler for that signal
will be called only once, after the opcode completes; all other
instances will be discarded. Furthermore, if your system's signal
queue gets flooded to the point that there are signals that have
been raised but not yet caught (and thus not deferred) at the time
an opcode completes, those signals may well be caught and deferred
during subsequent opcodes, with sometimes surprising results. For
example, you may see alarms delivered even after calling alarm(0) as
the latter stops the raising of alarms but does not cancel the
delivery of alarms raised but not yet caught. Do not depend on the
behaviors described in this paragraph as they are side effects of
the current implementation and may change in future versions of
Perl.
Interrupting IO
When a signal is delivered (e.g., SIGINT from a control-C) the
operating system breaks into IO operations like read(2), which is
used to implement Perl's readline() function, the "<>" operator. On
older Perls the handler was called immediately (and as "read" is not
"unsafe", this worked well). With the "deferred" scheme the handler
is not called immediately, and if Perl is using the system's "stdio"
library that library may restart the "read" without returning to
Perl to give it a chance to call the %SIG handler. If this happens
on your system the solution is to use the ":perlio" layer to do
IO--at least on those handles that you want to be able to break into
with signals. (The ":perlio" layer checks the signal flags and calls
%SIG handlers before resuming IO operation.)
The default in Perl 5.8.0 and later is to automatically use the
":perlio" layer.
Note that it is not advisable to access a file handle within a
signal handler where that signal has interrupted an I/O operation on
that same handle. While perl will at least try hard not to crash,
there are no guarantees of data integrity; for example, some data
might get dropped or written twice.
Some networking library functions like gethostbyname() are known to
have their own implementations of timeouts which may conflict with
your timeouts. If you have problems with such functions, try using
the POSIX sigaction() function, which bypasses Perl safe signals.
Be warned that this does subject you to possible memory corruption,
as described above.
Instead of setting $SIG{ALRM}:
local $SIG{ALRM} = sub { die "alarm" };
try something like the following:
use POSIX qw(SIGALRM);
POSIX::sigaction(SIGALRM,
POSIX::SigAction->new(sub { die "alarm" }))
|| die "Error setting SIGALRM handler: $!\n";
Another way to disable the safe signal behavior locally is to use
the "Perl::Unsafe::Signals" module from CPAN, which affects all
signals.
Restartable system calls
On systems that supported it, older versions of Perl used the
SA_RESTART flag when installing %SIG handlers. This meant that
restartable system calls would continue rather than returning when a
signal arrived. In order to deliver deferred signals promptly, Perl
5.8.0 and later do not use SA_RESTART. Consequently, restartable
system calls can fail (with $! set to "EINTR") in places where they
previously would have succeeded.
The default ":perlio" layer retries "read", "write" and "close" as
described above; interrupted "wait" and "waitpid" calls will always
be retried.
Signals as "faults"
Certain signals like SEGV, ILL, BUS and FPE are generated by virtual
memory addressing errors and similar "faults". These are normally
fatal: there is little a Perl-level handler can do with them. So
Perl delivers them immediately rather than attempting to defer them.
It is possible to catch these with a %SIG handler (see perlvar), but
on top of the usual problems of "unsafe" signals the signal is
likely to get rethrown immediately on return from the signal
handler, so such a handler should "die" or "exit" instead.
Signals triggered by operating system state
On some operating systems certain signal handlers are supposed to
"do something" before returning. One example can be CHLD or CLD,
which indicates a child process has completed. On some operating
systems the signal handler is expected to "wait" for the completed
child process. On such systems the deferred signal scheme will not
work for those signals: it does not do the "wait". Again the failure
will look like a loop as the operating system will reissue the
signal because there are completed child processes that have not yet
been "wait"ed for.
If you want the old signal behavior back despite possible memory
corruption, set the environment variable "PERL_SIGNALS" to "unsafe".
This feature first appeared in Perl 5.8.1.
Named Pipes
A named pipe (often referred to as a FIFO) is an old Unix IPC mechanism
for processes communicating on the same machine. It works just like
regular anonymous pipes, except that the processes rendezvous using a
filename and need not be related.
To create a named pipe, use the POSIX::mkfifo() function.
use POSIX qw(mkfifo);
mkfifo($path, 0700) || die "mkfifo $path failed: $!";
You can also use the Unix command mknod(1), or on some systems,
mkfifo(1). These may not be in your normal path, though.
# system return val is backwards, so && not ||
#
$ENV{PATH} .= ":/etc:/usr/etc";
if ( system("mknod", $path, "p")
&& system("mkfifo", $path) )
{
die "mk{nod,fifo} $path failed";
}
A fifo is convenient when you want to connect a process to an unrelated
one. When you open a fifo, the program will block until there's
something on the other end.
For example, let's say you'd like to have your .signature file be a
named pipe that has a Perl program on the other end. Now every time any
program (like a mailer, news reader, finger program, etc.) tries to read
from that file, the reading program will read the new signature from
your program. We'll use the pipe-checking file-test operator, -p, to
find out whether anyone (or anything) has accidentally removed our fifo.
chdir(); # go home
my $FIFO = ".signature";
while (1) {
unless (-p $FIFO) {
unlink $FIFO; # discard any failure, will catch later
require POSIX; # delayed loading of heavy module
POSIX::mkfifo($FIFO, 0700)
|| die "can't mkfifo $FIFO: $!";
}
# next line blocks till there's a reader
open (my $fh, ">", $FIFO) || die "can't open $FIFO: $!";
print $fh "John Smith (smith\@host.org)\n", `fortune -s`;
close($fh) || die "can't close $FIFO: $!";
sleep 2; # to avoid dup signals
}
Using open() for IPC
Perl's basic open() statement can also be used for unidirectional
interprocess communication by specifying the open mode as "|-" or "-|".
Here's how to start something up in a child process you intend to write
to:
open(my $spooler, "|-", "cat -v | lpr -h 2>/dev/null")
|| die "can't fork: $!";
local $SIG{PIPE} = sub { die "spooler pipe broke" };
print $spooler "stuff\n";
close $spooler || die "bad spool: $! $?";
And here's how to start up a child process you intend to read from:
open(my $status, "-|", "netstat -an 2>&1")
|| die "can't fork: $!";
while (<$status>) {
next if /^(tcp|udp)/;
print;
}
close $status || die "bad netstat: $! $?";
Be aware that these operations are full Unix forks, which means they may
not be correctly implemented on all alien systems. See "open" in
perlport for portability details.
In the two-argument form of open(), a pipe open can be achieved by
either appending or prepending a pipe symbol to the second argument:
open(my $spooler, "| cat -v | lpr -h 2>/dev/null")
|| die "can't fork: $!";
open(my $status, "netstat -an 2>&1 |")
|| die "can't fork: $!";
This can be used even on systems that do not support forking, but this
possibly allows code intended to read files to unexpectedly execute
programs. If one can be sure that a particular program is a Perl script
expecting filenames in @ARGV using the two-argument form of open() or
the "<>" operator, the clever programmer can write something like this:
% program f1 "cmd1|" - f2 "cmd2|" f3 < tmpfile
and no matter which sort of shell it's called from, the Perl program
will read from the file f1, the process cmd1, standard input (tmpfile in
this case), the f2 file, the cmd2 command, and finally the f3 file.
Pretty nifty, eh?
You might notice that you could use backticks for much the same effect
as opening a pipe for reading:
print grep { !/^(tcp|udp)/ } `netstat -an 2>&1`;
die "bad netstatus ($?)" if $?;
While this is true on the surface, it's much more efficient to process
the file one line or record at a time because then you don't have to
read the whole thing into memory at once. It also gives you finer
control of the whole process, letting you kill off the child process
early if you'd like.
Be careful to check the return values from both open() and close(). If
you're writing to a pipe, you should also trap SIGPIPE. Otherwise,
think of what happens when you start up a pipe to a command that doesn't
exist: the open() will in all likelihood succeed (it only reflects the
fork()'s success), but then your output will fail--spectacularly. Perl
can't know whether the command worked, because your command is actually
running in a separate process whose exec() might have failed.
Therefore, while readers of bogus commands return just a quick EOF,
writers to bogus commands will get hit with a signal, which they'd best
be prepared to handle. Consider:
open(my $fh, "|-", "bogus") || die "can't fork: $!";
print $fh "bang\n"; # neither necessary nor sufficient
# to check print retval!
close($fh) || die "can't close: $!";
The reason for not checking the return value from print() is because of
pipe buffering; physical writes are delayed. That won't blow up until
the close, and it will blow up with a SIGPIPE. To catch it, you could
use this:
$SIG{PIPE} = "IGNORE";
open(my $fh, "|-", "bogus") || die "can't fork: $!";
print $fh "bang\n";
close($fh) || die "can't close: status=$?";
Filehandles
Both the main process and any child processes it forks share the same
STDIN, STDOUT, and STDERR filehandles. If both processes try to access
them at once, strange things can happen. You may also want to close or
reopen the filehandles for the child. You can get around this by
opening your pipe with open(), but on some systems this means that the
child process cannot outlive the parent.
Background Processes
You can run a command in the background with:
system("cmd &");
The command's STDOUT and STDERR (and possibly STDIN, depending on your
shell) will be the same as the parent's. You won't need to catch
SIGCHLD because of the double-fork taking place; see below for details.
Complete Dissociation of Child from Parent
In some cases (starting server processes, for instance) you'll want to
completely dissociate the child process from the parent. This is often
called daemonization. A well-behaved daemon will also chdir() to the
root directory so it doesn't prevent unmounting the filesystem
containing the directory from which it was launched, and redirect its
standard file descriptors from and to /dev/null so that random output
doesn't wind up on the user's terminal.
use POSIX "setsid";
sub daemonize {
chdir("/") || die "can't chdir to /: $!";
open(STDIN, "<", "/dev/null") || die "can't read /dev/null: $!";
open(STDOUT, ">", "/dev/null") || die "can't write /dev/null: $!";
defined(my $pid = fork()) || die "can't fork: $!";
exit if $pid; # non-zero now means I am the parent
(setsid() != -1) || die "Can't start a new session: $!";
open(STDERR, ">&", STDOUT) || die "can't dup stdout: $!";
}
The fork() has to come before the setsid() to ensure you aren't a
process group leader; the setsid() will fail if you are. If your system
doesn't have the setsid() function, open /dev/tty and use the
"TIOCNOTTY" ioctl() on it instead. See tty(4) for details.
Non-Unix users should check their "Your_OS::Process" module for other
possible solutions.
Safe Pipe Opens
Another interesting approach to IPC is making your single program go
multiprocess and communicate between--or even amongst--yourselves. The
two-argument form of the open() function will accept a file argument of
either "-|" or "|-" to do a very interesting thing: it forks a child
connected to the filehandle you've opened. The child is running the
same program as the parent. This is useful for safely opening a file
when running under an assumed UID or GID, for example. If you open a
pipe to minus, you can write to the filehandle you opened and your kid
will find it in his STDIN. If you open a pipe from minus, you can read
from the filehandle you opened whatever your kid writes to his STDOUT.
my $PRECIOUS = "/path/to/some/safe/file";
my $sleep_count;
my $pid;
my $kid_to_write;
do {
$pid = open($kid_to_write, "|-");
unless (defined $pid) {
warn "cannot fork: $!";
die "bailing out" if $sleep_count++ > 6;
sleep 10;
}
} until defined $pid;
if ($pid) { # I am the parent
print $kid_to_write @some_data;
close($kid_to_write) || warn "kid exited $?";
} else { # I am the child
# drop permissions in setuid and/or setgid programs:
($>, $)) = ($<, $();
open (my $outfile, ">", $PRECIOUS)
|| die "can't open $PRECIOUS: $!";
while (<STDIN>) {
print $outfile; # child STDIN is parent $kid_to_write
}
close($outfile) || die "can't close $PRECIOUS: $!";
exit(0); # don't forget this!!
}
Another common use for this construct is when you need to execute
something without the shell's interference. With system(), it's
straightforward, but you can't use a pipe open or backticks safely.
That's because there's no way to stop the shell from getting its hands
on your arguments. Instead, use lower-level control to call exec()
directly.
Here's a safe backtick or pipe open for read:
my $pid = open(my $kid_to_read, "-|");
defined($pid) || die "can't fork: $!";
if ($pid) { # parent
while (<$kid_to_read>) {
# do something interesting
}
close($kid_to_read) || warn "kid exited $?";
} else { # child
($>, $)) = ($<, $(); # suid only
exec($program, @options, @args)
|| die "can't exec program: $!";
# NOTREACHED
}
And here's a safe pipe open for writing:
my $pid = open(my $kid_to_write, "|-");
defined($pid) || die "can't fork: $!";
$SIG{PIPE} = sub { die "whoops, $program pipe broke" };
if ($pid) { # parent
print $kid_to_write @data;
close($kid_to_write) || warn "kid exited $?";
} else { # child
($>, $)) = ($<, $();
exec($program, @options, @args)
|| die "can't exec program: $!";
# NOTREACHED
}
It is very easy to dead-lock a process using this form of open(), or
indeed with any use of pipe() with multiple subprocesses. The example
above is "safe" because it is simple and calls exec(). See "Avoiding
Pipe Deadlocks" for general safety principles, but there are extra
gotchas with Safe Pipe Opens.
In particular, if you opened the pipe using "open $fh, "|-"", then you
cannot simply use close() in the parent process to close an unwanted
writer. Consider this code:
my $pid = open(my $writer, "|-"); # fork open a kid
defined($pid) || die "first fork failed: $!";
if ($pid) {
if (my $sub_pid = fork()) {
defined($sub_pid) || die "second fork failed: $!";
close($writer) || die "couldn't close writer: $!";
# now do something else...
}
else {
# first write to $writer
# ...
# then when finished
close($writer) || die "couldn't close writer: $!";
exit(0);
}
}
else {
# first do something with STDIN, then
exit(0);
}
In the example above, the true parent does not want to write to the
$writer filehandle, so it closes it. However, because $writer was
opened using "open $fh, "|-"", it has a special behavior: closing it
calls waitpid() (see "waitpid" in perlfunc), which waits for the
subprocess to exit. If the child process ends up waiting for something
happening in the section marked "do something else", you have deadlock.
This can also be a problem with intermediate subprocesses in more
complicated code, which will call waitpid() on all open filehandles
during global destruction--in no predictable order.
To solve this, you must manually use pipe(), fork(), and the form of
open() which sets one file descriptor to another, as shown below:
pipe(my $reader, my $writer) || die "pipe failed: $!";
my $pid = fork();
defined($pid) || die "first fork failed: $!";
if ($pid) {
close $reader;
if (my $sub_pid = fork()) {
defined($sub_pid) || die "first fork failed: $!";
close($writer) || die "can't close writer: $!";
}
else {
# write to $writer...
# ...
# then when finished
close($writer) || die "can't close writer: $!";
exit(0);
}
# write to $writer...
}
else {
open(STDIN, "<&", $reader) || die "can't reopen STDIN: $!";
close($writer) || die "can't close writer: $!";
# do something...
exit(0);
}
Since Perl 5.8.0, you can also use the list form of "open" for pipes.
This is preferred when you wish to avoid having the shell interpret
metacharacters that may be in your command string.
So for example, instead of using:
open(my $ps_pipe, "-|", "ps aux") || die "can't open ps pipe: $!";
One would use either of these:
open(my $ps_pipe, "-|", "ps", "aux")
|| die "can't open ps pipe: $!";
my @ps_args = qw[ ps aux ];
open(my $ps_pipe, "-|", @ps_args)
|| die "can't open @ps_args|: $!";
Because there are more than three arguments to open(), it forks the
ps(1) command without spawning a shell, and reads its standard output
via the $ps_pipe filehandle. The corresponding syntax to write to
command pipes is to use "|-" in place of "-|".
This was admittedly a rather silly example, because you're using string
literals whose content is perfectly safe. There is therefore no cause
to resort to the harder-to-read, multi-argument form of pipe open().
However, whenever you cannot be assured that the program arguments are
free of shell metacharacters, the fancier form of open() should be used.
For example:
my @grep_args = ("egrep", "-i", $some_pattern, @many_files);
open(my $grep_pipe, "-|", @grep_args)
|| die "can't open @grep_args|: $!";
Here the multi-argument form of pipe open() is preferred because the
pattern and indeed even the filenames themselves might hold
metacharacters.
Avoiding Pipe Deadlocks
Whenever you have more than one subprocess, you must be careful that
each closes whichever half of any pipes created for interprocess
communication it is not using. This is because any child process
reading from the pipe and expecting an EOF will never receive it, and
therefore never exit. A single process closing a pipe is not enough to
close it; the last process with the pipe open must close it for it to
read EOF.
Certain built-in Unix features help prevent this most of the time. For
instance, filehandles have a "close on exec" flag, which is set en masse
under control of the $^F variable. This is so any filehandles you
didn't explicitly route to the STDIN, STDOUT or STDERR of a child
program will be automatically closed.
Always explicitly and immediately call close() on the writable end of
any pipe, unless that process is actually writing to it. Even if you
don't explicitly call close(), Perl will still close() all filehandles
during global destruction. As previously discussed, if those
filehandles have been opened with Safe Pipe Open, this will result in
calling waitpid(), which may again deadlock.
Bidirectional Communication with Another Process
While this works reasonably well for unidirectional communication, what
about bidirectional communication? The most obvious approach doesn't
work:
# THIS DOES NOT WORK!!
open(my $prog_for_reading_and_writing, "| some program |")
If you forget to "use warnings", you'll miss out entirely on the helpful
diagnostic message:
Can't do bidirectional pipe at -e line 1.
If you really want to, you can use the standard open2() from the
IPC::Open2 module to catch both ends. There's also an open3() in
IPC::Open3 for tridirectional I/O so you can also catch your child's
STDERR, but doing so would then require an awkward select() loop and
wouldn't allow you to use normal Perl input operations.
If you look at its source, you'll see that open2() uses low-level
primitives like the pipe() and exec() syscalls to create all the
connections. Although it might have been more efficient by using
socketpair(), this would have been even less portable than it already
is. The open2() and open3() functions are unlikely to work anywhere
except on a Unix system, or at least one purporting POSIX compliance.
Here's an example of using open2():
use IPC::Open2;
my $pid = open2(my $reader, my $writer, "cat -un");
print $writer "stuff\n";
my $got = <$reader>;
waitpid $pid, 0;
The problem with this is that buffering is really going to ruin your
day. Even though your $writer filehandle is auto-flushed so the process
on the other end gets your data in a timely manner, you can't usually do
anything to force that process to give its data to you in a similarly
quick fashion. In this special case, we could actually so, because we
gave cat a -u flag to make it unbuffered. But very few commands are
designed to operate over pipes, so this seldom works unless you yourself
wrote the program on the other end of the double-ended pipe.
A solution to this is to use a library which uses pseudottys to make
your program behave more reasonably. This way you don't have to have
control over the source code of the program you're using. The "Expect"
module from CPAN also addresses this kind of thing. This module
requires two other modules from CPAN, "IO::Pty" and "IO::Stty". It sets
up a pseudo terminal to interact with programs that insist on talking to
the terminal device driver. If your system is supported, this may be
your best bet.
Bidirectional Communication with Yourself
If you want, you may make low-level pipe() and fork() syscalls to stitch
this together by hand. This example only talks to itself, but you could
reopen the appropriate handles to STDIN and STDOUT and call other
processes. (The following example lacks proper error checking.)
#!/usr/bin/perl
# pipe1 - bidirectional communication using two pipe pairs
# designed for the socketpair-challenged
use v5.36;
use IO::Handle; # enable autoflush method before Perl 5.14
pipe(my $parent_rdr, my $child_wtr); # XXX: check failure?
pipe(my $child_rdr, my $parent_wtr); # XXX: check failure?
$child_wtr->autoflush(1);
$parent_wtr->autoflush(1);
if ($pid = fork()) {
close $parent_rdr;
close $parent_wtr;
print $child_wtr "Parent Pid $$ is sending this\n";
chomp(my $line = <$child_rdr>);
print "Parent Pid $$ just read this: '$line'\n";
close $child_rdr; close $child_wtr;
waitpid($pid, 0);
} else {
die "cannot fork: $!" unless defined $pid;
close $child_rdr;
close $child_wtr;
chomp(my $line = <$parent_rdr>);
print "Child Pid $$ just read this: '$line'\n";
print $parent_wtr "Child Pid $$ is sending this\n";
close $parent_rdr;
close $parent_wtr;
exit(0);
}
But you don't actually have to make two pipe calls. If you have the
socketpair() system call, it will do this all for you.
#!/usr/bin/perl
# pipe2 - bidirectional communication using socketpair
# "the best ones always go both ways"
use v5.36;
use Socket;
use IO::Handle; # enable autoflush method before Perl 5.14
# We say AF_UNIX because although *_LOCAL is the
# POSIX 1003.1g form of the constant, many machines
# still don't have it.
socketpair(my $child, my $parent, AF_UNIX, SOCK_STREAM, PF_UNSPEC)
|| die "socketpair: $!";
$child->autoflush(1);
$parent->autoflush(1);
if ($pid = fork()) {
close $parent;
print $child "Parent Pid $$ is sending this\n";
chomp(my $line = <$child>);
print "Parent Pid $$ just read this: '$line'\n";
close $child;
waitpid($pid, 0);
} else {
die "cannot fork: $!" unless defined $pid;
close $child;
chomp(my $line = <$parent>);
print "Child Pid $$ just read this: '$line'\n";
print $parent "Child Pid $$ is sending this\n";
close $parent;
exit(0);
}
Sockets: Client/Server Communication
While not entirely limited to Unix-derived operating systems (e.g.,
WinSock on PCs provides socket support, as do some VMS libraries), you
might not have sockets on your system, in which case this section
probably isn't going to do you much good. With sockets, you can do both
virtual circuits like TCP streams and datagrams like UDP packets. You
may be able to do even more depending on your system.
The Perl functions for dealing with sockets have the same names as the
corresponding system calls in C, but their arguments tend to differ for
two reasons. First, Perl filehandles work differently than C file
descriptors. Second, Perl already knows the length of its strings, so
you don't need to pass that information.
One of the major problems with ancient, antemillennial socket code in
Perl was that it used hard-coded values for some of the constants, which
severely hurt portability. If you ever see code that does anything like
explicitly setting "$AF_INET = 2", you know you're in for big trouble.
An immeasurably superior approach is to use the Socket module, which
more reliably grants access to the various constants and functions
you'll need.
If you're not writing a server/client for an existing protocol like NNTP
or SMTP, you should give some thought to how your server will know when
the client has finished talking, and vice-versa. Most protocols are
based on one-line messages and responses (so one party knows the other
has finished when a "\n" is received) or multi-line messages and
responses that end with a period on an empty line ("\n.\n" terminates a
message/response).
Internet Line Terminators
The Internet line terminator is "\015\012". Under ASCII variants of
Unix, that could usually be written as "\r\n", but under other systems,
"\r\n" might at times be "\015\015\012", "\012\012\015", or something
completely different. The standards specify writing "\015\012" to be
conformant (be strict in what you provide), but they also recommend
accepting a lone "\012" on input (be lenient in what you require). We
haven't always been very good about that in the code in this manpage,
but unless you're on a Mac from way back in its pre-Unix dark ages,
you'll probably be ok.
Internet TCP Clients and Servers
Use Internet-domain sockets when you want to do client-server
communication that might extend to machines outside of your own system.
Here's a sample TCP client using Internet-domain sockets:
#!/usr/bin/perl
use v5.36;
use Socket;
my $remote = shift || "localhost";
my $port = shift || 2345; # random port
if ($port =~ /\D/) { $port = getservbyname($port, "tcp") }
die "No port" unless $port;
my $iaddr = inet_aton($remote) || die "no host: $remote";
my $paddr = sockaddr_in($port, $iaddr);
my $proto = getprotobyname("tcp");
socket(my $sock, PF_INET, SOCK_STREAM, $proto) || die "socket: $!";
connect($sock, $paddr) || die "connect: $!";
while (my $line = <$sock>) {
print $line;
}
close ($sock) || die "close: $!";
exit(0);
And here's a corresponding server to go along with it. We'll leave the
address as "INADDR_ANY" so that the kernel can choose the appropriate
interface on multihomed hosts. If you want sit on a particular
interface (like the external side of a gateway or firewall machine),
fill this in with your real address instead.
#!/usr/bin/perl -T
use v5.36;
BEGIN { $ENV{PATH} = "/usr/bin:/bin" }
use Socket;
use Carp;
my $EOL = "\015\012";
sub logmsg { print "$0 $$: @_ at ", scalar localtime(), "\n" }
my $port = shift || 2345;
die "invalid port" unless $port =~ /^ \d+ $/x;
my $proto = getprotobyname("tcp");
socket(my $server, PF_INET, SOCK_STREAM, $proto) || die "socket: $!";
setsockopt($server, SOL_SOCKET, SO_REUSEADDR, pack("l", 1))
|| die "setsockopt: $!";
bind($server, sockaddr_in($port, INADDR_ANY)) || die "bind: $!";
listen($server, SOMAXCONN) || die "listen: $!";
logmsg "server started on port $port";
for (my $paddr; $paddr = accept(my $client, $server); close $client) {
my($port, $iaddr) = sockaddr_in($paddr);
my $name = gethostbyaddr($iaddr, AF_INET);
logmsg "connection from $name [",
inet_ntoa($iaddr), "]
at port $port";
print $client "Hello there, $name, it's now ",
scalar localtime(), $EOL;
}
And here's a multitasking version. It's multitasked in that like most
typical servers, it spawns (fork()s) a child server to handle the client
request so that the master server can quickly go back to service a new
client.
#!/usr/bin/perl -T
use v5.36;
BEGIN { $ENV{PATH} = "/usr/bin:/bin" }
use Socket;
use Carp;
my $EOL = "\015\012";
sub spawn; # forward declaration
sub logmsg { print "$0 $$: @_ at ", scalar localtime(), "\n" }
my $port = shift || 2345;
die "invalid port" unless $port =~ /^ \d+ $/x;
my $proto = getprotobyname("tcp");
socket(my $server, PF_INET, SOCK_STREAM, $proto) || die "socket: $!";
setsockopt($server, SOL_SOCKET, SO_REUSEADDR, pack("l", 1))
|| die "setsockopt: $!";
bind($server, sockaddr_in($port, INADDR_ANY)) || die "bind: $!";
listen($server, SOMAXCONN) || die "listen: $!";
logmsg "server started on port $port";
my $waitedpid = 0;
use POSIX ":sys_wait_h";
use Errno;
sub REAPER {
local $!; # don't let waitpid() overwrite current error
while ((my $pid = waitpid(-1, WNOHANG)) > 0 && WIFEXITED($?)) {
logmsg "reaped $waitedpid" . ($? ? " with exit $?" : "");
}
$SIG{CHLD} = \&REAPER; # loathe SysV
}
$SIG{CHLD} = \&REAPER;
while (1) {
my $paddr = accept(my $client, $server) || do {
# try again if accept() returned because got a signal
next if $!{EINTR};
die "accept: $!";
};
my ($port, $iaddr) = sockaddr_in($paddr);
my $name = gethostbyaddr($iaddr, AF_INET);
logmsg "connection from $name [",
inet_ntoa($iaddr),
"] at port $port";
spawn $client, sub {
$| = 1;
print "Hello there, $name, it's now ",
scalar localtime(),
$EOL;
exec "/usr/games/fortune" # XXX: "wrong" line terminators
or confess "can't exec fortune: $!";
};
close $client;
}
sub spawn {
my $client = shift;
my $coderef = shift;
unless (@_ == 0 && $coderef && ref($coderef) eq "CODE") {
confess "usage: spawn CLIENT CODEREF";
}
my $pid;
unless (defined($pid = fork())) {
logmsg "cannot fork: $!";
return;
}
elsif ($pid) {
logmsg "begat $pid";
return; # I'm the parent
}
# else I'm the child -- go spawn
open(STDIN, "<&", $client) || die "can't dup client to stdin";
open(STDOUT, ">&", $client) || die "can't dup client to stdout";
## open(STDERR, ">&", STDOUT) || die "can't dup stdout to stderr";
exit($coderef->());
}
This server takes the trouble to clone off a child version via fork()
for each incoming request. That way it can handle many requests at
once, which you might not always want. Even if you don't fork(), the
listen() will allow that many pending connections. Forking servers have
to be particularly careful about cleaning up their dead children (called
"zombies" in Unix parlance), because otherwise you'll quickly fill up
your process table. The REAPER subroutine is used here to call
waitpid() for any child processes that have finished, thereby ensuring
that they terminate cleanly and don't join the ranks of the living dead.
Within the while loop we call accept() and check to see if it returns a
false value. This would normally indicate a system error needs to be
reported. However, the introduction of safe signals (see "Deferred
Signals (Safe Signals)" above) in Perl 5.8.0 means that accept() might
also be interrupted when the process receives a signal. This typically
happens when one of the forked subprocesses exits and notifies the
parent process with a CHLD signal.
If accept() is interrupted by a signal, $! will be set to EINTR. If
this happens, we can safely continue to the next iteration of the loop
and another call to accept(). It is important that your signal handling
code not modify the value of $!, or else this test will likely fail. In
the REAPER subroutine we create a local version of $! before calling
waitpid(). When waitpid() sets $! to ECHILD as it inevitably does when
it has no more children waiting, it updates the local copy and leaves
the original unchanged.
You should use the -T flag to enable taint checking (see perlsec) even
if we aren't running setuid or setgid. This is always a good idea for
servers or any program run on behalf of someone else (like CGI scripts),
because it lessens the chances that people from the outside will be able
to compromise your system. Note that perl can be built without taint
support. There are two different modes: in one, -T will silently do
nothing. In the other mode -T results in a fatal error.
Let's look at another TCP client. This one connects to the TCP "time"
service on a number of different machines and shows how far their clocks
differ from the system on which it's being run:
#!/usr/bin/perl
use v5.36;
use Socket;
my $SECS_OF_70_YEARS = 2208988800;
sub ctime { scalar localtime(shift() || time()) }
my $iaddr = gethostbyname("localhost");
my $proto = getprotobyname("tcp");
my $port = getservbyname("time", "tcp");
my $paddr = sockaddr_in(0, $iaddr);
$| = 1;
printf "%-24s %8s %s\n", "localhost", 0, ctime();
foreach my $host (@ARGV) {
printf "%-24s ", $host;
my $hisiaddr = inet_aton($host) || die "unknown host";
my $hispaddr = sockaddr_in($port, $hisiaddr);
socket(my $socket, PF_INET, SOCK_STREAM, $proto)
|| die "socket: $!";
connect($socket, $hispaddr) || die "connect: $!";
my $rtime = pack("C4", ());
read($socket, $rtime, 4);
close($socket);
my $histime = unpack("N", $rtime) - $SECS_OF_70_YEARS;
printf "%8d %s\n", $histime - time(), ctime($histime);
}
Unix-Domain TCP Clients and Servers
That's fine for Internet-domain clients and servers, but what about
local communications? While you can use the same setup, sometimes you
don't want to. Unix-domain sockets are local to the current host, and
are often used internally to implement pipes. Unlike Internet domain
sockets, Unix domain sockets can show up in the file system with an
ls(1) listing.
% ls -l /dev/log
srw-rw-rw- 1 root 0 Oct 31 07:23 /dev/log
You can test for these with Perl's -S file test:
unless (-S "/dev/log") {
die "something's wicked with the log system";
}
Here's a sample Unix-domain client:
#!/usr/bin/perl
use v5.36;
use Socket;
my $rendezvous = shift || "catsock";
socket(my $sock, PF_UNIX, SOCK_STREAM, 0) || die "socket: $!";
connect($sock, sockaddr_un($rendezvous)) || die "connect: $!";
while (defined(my $line = <$sock>)) {
print $line;
}
exit(0);
And here's a corresponding server. You don't have to worry about silly
network terminators here because Unix domain sockets are guaranteed to
be on the localhost, and thus everything works right.
#!/usr/bin/perl -T
use v5.36;
use Socket;
use Carp;
BEGIN { $ENV{PATH} = "/usr/bin:/bin" }
sub spawn; # forward declaration
sub logmsg { print "$0 $$: @_ at ", scalar localtime(), "\n" }
my $NAME = "catsock";
my $uaddr = sockaddr_un($NAME);
my $proto = getprotobyname("tcp");
socket(my $server, PF_UNIX, SOCK_STREAM, 0) || die "socket: $!";
unlink($NAME);
bind ($server, $uaddr) || die "bind: $!";
listen($server, SOMAXCONN) || die "listen: $!";
logmsg "server started on $NAME";
my $waitedpid;
use POSIX ":sys_wait_h";
sub REAPER {
my $child;
while (($waitedpid = waitpid(-1, WNOHANG)) > 0) {
logmsg "reaped $waitedpid" . ($? ? " with exit $?" : "");
}
$SIG{CHLD} = \&REAPER; # loathe SysV
}
$SIG{CHLD} = \&REAPER;
for ( $waitedpid = 0;
accept(my $client, $server) || $waitedpid;
$waitedpid = 0, close $client)
{
next if $waitedpid;
logmsg "connection on $NAME";
spawn $client, sub {
print "Hello there, it's now ", scalar localtime(), "\n";
exec("/usr/games/fortune") || die "can't exec fortune: $!";
};
}
sub spawn {
my $client = shift();
my $coderef = shift();
unless (@_ == 0 && $coderef && ref($coderef) eq "CODE") {
confess "usage: spawn CLIENT CODEREF";
}
my $pid;
unless (defined($pid = fork())) {
logmsg "cannot fork: $!";
return;
}
elsif ($pid) {
logmsg "begat $pid";
return; # I'm the parent
}
else {
# I'm the child -- go spawn
}
open(STDIN, "<&", $client)
|| die "can't dup client to stdin";
open(STDOUT, ">&", $client)
|| die "can't dup client to stdout";
## open(STDERR, ">&", STDOUT)
## || die "can't dup stdout to stderr";
exit($coderef->());
}
As you see, it's remarkably similar to the Internet domain TCP server,
so much so, in fact, that we've omitted several duplicate
functions--spawn(), logmsg(), ctime(), and REAPER()--which are the same
as in the other server.
So why would you ever want to use a Unix domain socket instead of a
simpler named pipe? Because a named pipe doesn't give you sessions.
You can't tell one process's data from another's. With socket
programming, you get a separate session for each client; that's why
accept() takes two arguments.
For example, let's say that you have a long-running database server
daemon that you want folks to be able to access from the Web, but only
if they go through a CGI interface. You'd have a small, simple CGI
program that does whatever checks and logging you feel like, and then
acts as a Unix-domain client and connects to your private server.
TCP Clients with IO::Socket
For those preferring a higher-level interface to socket programming, the
IO::Socket module provides an object-oriented approach. If for some
reason you lack this module, you can just fetch IO::Socket from CPAN,
where you'll also find modules providing easy interfaces to the
following systems: DNS, FTP, Ident (RFC 931), NIS and NISPlus, NNTP,
Ping, POP3, SMTP, SNMP, SSLeay, Telnet, and Time--to name just a few.
A Simple Client
Here's a client that creates a TCP connection to the "daytime" service
at port 13 of the host name "localhost" and prints out everything that
the server there cares to provide.
#!/usr/bin/perl
use v5.36;
use IO::Socket;
my $remote = IO::Socket::INET->new(
Proto => "tcp",
PeerAddr => "localhost",
PeerPort => "daytime(13)",
)
|| die "can't connect to daytime service on localhost";
while (<$remote>) { print }
When you run this program, you should get something back that looks like
this:
Wed May 14 08:40:46 MDT 1997
Here are what those parameters to the new() constructor mean:
"Proto"
This is which protocol to use. In this case, the socket handle
returned will be connected to a TCP socket, because we want a
stream-oriented connection, that is, one that acts pretty much like
a plain old file. Not all sockets are this of this type. For
example, the UDP protocol can be used to make a datagram socket,
used for message-passing.
"PeerAddr"
This is the name or Internet address of the remote host the server
is running on. We could have specified a longer name like
"www.perl.com", or an address like "207.171.7.72". For
demonstration purposes, we've used the special hostname "localhost",
which should always mean the current machine you're running on. The
corresponding Internet address for localhost is "127.0.0.1", if
you'd rather use that.
"PeerPort"
This is the service name or port number we'd like to connect to. We
could have gotten away with using just "daytime" on systems with a
well-configured system services file,[FOOTNOTE: The system services
file is found in /etc/services under Unixy systems.] but here we've
specified the port number (13) in parentheses. Using just the
number would have also worked, but numeric literals make careful
programmers nervous.
A Webget Client
Here's a simple client that takes a remote host to fetch a document
from, and then a list of files to get from that host. This is a more
interesting client than the previous one because it first sends
something to the server before fetching the server's response.
#!/usr/bin/perl
use v5.36;
use IO::Socket;
unless (@ARGV > 1) { die "usage: $0 host url ..." }
my $host = shift(@ARGV);
my $EOL = "\015\012";
my $BLANK = $EOL x 2;
for my $document (@ARGV) {
my $remote = IO::Socket::INET->new( Proto => "tcp",
PeerAddr => $host,
PeerPort => "http(80)",
) || die "cannot connect to httpd on $host";
$remote->autoflush(1);
print $remote "GET $document HTTP/1.0" . $BLANK;
while ( <$remote> ) { print }
close $remote;
}
The web server handling the HTTP service is assumed to be at its
standard port, number 80. If the server you're trying to connect to is
at a different port, like 1080 or 8080, you should specify it as the
named-parameter pair, "PeerPort => 8080". The "autoflush" method is
used on the socket because otherwise the system would buffer up the
output we sent it. (If you're on a prehistoric Mac, you'll also need to
change every "\n" in your code that sends data over the network to be a
"\015\012" instead.)
Connecting to the server is only the first part of the process: once you
have the connection, you have to use the server's language. Each server
on the network has its own little command language that it expects as
input. The string that we send to the server starting with "GET" is in
HTTP syntax. In this case, we simply request each specified document.
Yes, we really are making a new connection for each document, even
though it's the same host. That's the way you always used to have to
speak HTTP. Recent versions of web browsers may request that the remote
server leave the connection open a little while, but the server doesn't
have to honor such a request.
Here's an example of running that program, which we'll call webget:
% webget www.perl.com /guanaco.html
HTTP/1.1 404 File Not Found
Date: Thu, 08 May 1997 18:02:32 GMT
Server: Apache/1.2b6
Connection: close
Content-type: text/html
<HEAD><TITLE>404 File Not Found</TITLE></HEAD>
<BODY><H1>File Not Found</H1>
The requested URL /guanaco.html was not found on this server.<P>
</BODY>
Ok, so that's not very interesting, because it didn't find that
particular document. But a long response wouldn't have fit on this
page.
For a more featureful version of this program, you should look to the
lwp-request program included with the LWP modules from CPAN.
Interactive Client with IO::Socket
Well, that's all fine if you want to send one command and get one
answer, but what about setting up something fully interactive, somewhat
like the way telnet works? That way you can type a line, get the
answer, type a line, get the answer, etc.
This client is more complicated than the two we've done so far, but if
you're on a system that supports the powerful "fork" call, the solution
isn't that rough. Once you've made the connection to whatever service
you'd like to chat with, call "fork" to clone your process. Each of
these two identical process has a very simple job to do: the parent
copies everything from the socket to standard output, while the child
simultaneously copies everything from standard input to the socket. To
accomplish the same thing using just one process would be much harder,
because it's easier to code two processes to do one thing than it is to
code one process to do two things. (This keep-it-simple principle a
cornerstones of the Unix philosophy, and good software engineering as
well, which is probably why it's spread to other systems.)
Here's the code:
#!/usr/bin/perl
use v5.36;
use IO::Socket;
unless (@ARGV == 2) { die "usage: $0 host port" }
my ($host, $port) = @ARGV;
# create a tcp connection to the specified host and port
my $handle = IO::Socket::INET->new(Proto => "tcp",
PeerAddr => $host,
PeerPort => $port)
|| die "can't connect to port $port on $host: $!";
$handle->autoflush(1); # so output gets there right away
print STDERR "[Connected to $host:$port]\n";
# split the program into two processes, identical twins
die "can't fork: $!" unless defined(my $kidpid = fork());
# the if{} block runs only in the parent process
if ($kidpid) {
# copy the socket to standard output
while (defined (my $line = <$handle>)) {
print STDOUT $line;
}
kill("TERM", $kidpid); # send SIGTERM to child
}
# the else{} block runs only in the child process
else {
# copy standard input to the socket
while (defined (my $line = <STDIN>)) {
print $handle $line;
}
exit(0); # just in case
}
The "kill" function in the parent's "if" block is there to send a signal
to our child process, currently running in the "else" block, as soon as
the remote server has closed its end of the connection.
If the remote server sends data a byte at time, and you need that data
immediately without waiting for a newline (which might not happen), you
may wish to replace the "while" loop in the parent with the following:
my $byte;
while (sysread($handle, $byte, 1) == 1) {
print STDOUT $byte;
}
Making a system call for each byte you want to read is not very
efficient (to put it mildly) but is the simplest to explain and works
reasonably well.
TCP Servers with IO::Socket
As always, setting up a server is little bit more involved than running
a client. The model is that the server creates a special kind of socket
that does nothing but listen on a particular port for incoming
connections. It does this by calling the "IO::Socket::INET->new()"
method with slightly different arguments than the client did.
Proto
This is which protocol to use. Like our clients, we'll still
specify "tcp" here.
LocalPort
We specify a local port in the "LocalPort" argument, which we didn't
do for the client. This is service name or port number for which
you want to be the server. (Under Unix, ports under 1024 are
restricted to the superuser.) In our sample, we'll use port 9000,
but you can use any port that's not currently in use on your system.
If you try to use one already in used, you'll get an "Address
already in use" message. Under Unix, the "netstat -a" command will
show which services current have servers.
Listen
The "Listen" parameter is set to the maximum number of pending
connections we can accept until we turn away incoming clients.
Think of it as a call-waiting queue for your telephone. The low-
level Socket module has a special symbol for the system maximum,
which is SOMAXCONN.
Reuse
The "Reuse" parameter is needed so that we restart our server
manually without waiting a few minutes to allow system buffers to
clear out.
Once the generic server socket has been created using the parameters
listed above, the server then waits for a new client to connect to it.
The server blocks in the "accept" method, which eventually accepts a
bidirectional connection from the remote client. (Make sure to
autoflush this handle to circumvent buffering.)
To add to user-friendliness, our server prompts the user for commands.
Most servers don't do this. Because of the prompt without a newline,
you'll have to use the "sysread" variant of the interactive client
above.
This server accepts one of five different commands, sending output back
to the client. Unlike most network servers, this one handles only one
incoming client at a time. Multitasking servers are covered in Chapter
16 of the Camel.
Here's the code.
#!/usr/bin/perl
use v5.36;
use IO::Socket;
use Net::hostent; # for OOish version of gethostbyaddr
my $PORT = 9000; # pick something not in use
my $server = IO::Socket::INET->new( Proto => "tcp",
LocalPort => $PORT,
Listen => SOMAXCONN,
Reuse => 1);
die "can't setup server" unless $server;
print "[Server $0 accepting clients]\n";
while (my $client = $server->accept()) {
$client->autoflush(1);
print $client "Welcome to $0; type help for command list.\n";
my $hostinfo = gethostbyaddr($client->peeraddr);
printf "[Connect from %s]\n",
$hostinfo ? $hostinfo->name : $client->peerhost;
print $client "Command? ";
while ( <$client>) {
next unless /\S/; # blank line
if (/quit|exit/i) { last }
elsif (/date|time/i) { printf $client "%s\n", scalar localtime() }
elsif (/who/i ) { print $client `who 2>&1` }
elsif (/cookie/i ) { print $client `/usr/games/fortune 2>&1` }
elsif (/motd/i ) { print $client `cat /etc/motd 2>&1` }
else {
print $client "Commands: quit date who cookie motd\n";
}
} continue {
print $client "Command? ";
}
close $client;
}
UDP: Message Passing
Another kind of client-server setup is one that uses not connections,
but messages. UDP communications involve much lower overhead but also
provide less reliability, as there are no promises that messages will
arrive at all, let alone in order and unmangled. Still, UDP offers some
advantages over TCP, including being able to "broadcast" or "multicast"
to a whole bunch of destination hosts at once (usually on your local
subnet). If you find yourself overly concerned about reliability and
start building checks into your message system, then you probably should
use just TCP to start with.
UDP datagrams are not a bytestream and should not be treated as such.
This makes using I/O mechanisms with internal buffering like stdio (i.e.
print() and friends) especially cumbersome. Use syswrite(), or better
send(), like in the example below.
Here's a UDP program similar to the sample Internet TCP client given
earlier. However, instead of checking one host at a time, the UDP
version will check many of them asynchronously by simulating a multicast
and then using select() to do a timed-out wait for I/O. To do something
similar with TCP, you'd have to use a different socket handle for each
host.
#!/usr/bin/perl
use v5.36;
use Socket;
use Sys::Hostname;
my $SECS_OF_70_YEARS = 2_208_988_800;
my $iaddr = gethostbyname(hostname());
my $proto = getprotobyname("udp");
my $port = getservbyname("time", "udp");
my $paddr = sockaddr_in(0, $iaddr); # 0 means let kernel pick
socket(my $socket, PF_INET, SOCK_DGRAM, $proto) || die "socket: $!";
bind($socket, $paddr) || die "bind: $!";
$| = 1;
printf "%-12s %8s %s\n", "localhost", 0, scalar localtime();
my $count = 0;
for my $host (@ARGV) {
$count++;
my $hisiaddr = inet_aton($host) || die "unknown host";
my $hispaddr = sockaddr_in($port, $hisiaddr);
defined(send($socket, 0, 0, $hispaddr)) || die "send $host: $!";
}
my $rout = my $rin = "";
vec($rin, fileno($socket), 1) = 1;
# timeout after 10.0 seconds
while ($count && select($rout = $rin, undef, undef, 10.0)) {
my $rtime = "";
my $hispaddr = recv($socket, $rtime, 4, 0) || die "recv: $!";
my ($port, $hisiaddr) = sockaddr_in($hispaddr);
my $host = gethostbyaddr($hisiaddr, AF_INET);
my $histime = unpack("N", $rtime) - $SECS_OF_70_YEARS;
printf "%-12s ", $host;
printf "%8d %s\n", $histime - time(), scalar localtime($histime);
$count--;
}
This example does not include any retries and may consequently fail to
contact a reachable host. The most prominent reason for this is
congestion of the queues on the sending host if the number of hosts to
contact is sufficiently large.
SysV IPC
While System V IPC isn't so widely used as sockets, it still has some
interesting uses. However, you cannot use SysV IPC or Berkeley mmap()
to have a variable shared amongst several processes. That's because
Perl would reallocate your string when you weren't wanting it to. You
might look into the "IPC::Shareable" or "threads::shared" modules for
that.
Here's a small example showing shared memory usage.
use IPC::SysV qw(IPC_PRIVATE IPC_RMID S_IRUSR S_IWUSR);
my $size = 2000;
my $id = shmget(IPC_PRIVATE, $size, S_IRUSR | S_IWUSR);
defined($id) || die "shmget: $!";
print "shm key $id\n";
my $message = "Message #1";
shmwrite($id, $message, 0, 60) || die "shmwrite: $!";
print "wrote: '$message'\n";
shmread($id, my $buff, 0, 60) || die "shmread: $!";
print "read : '$buff'\n";
# the buffer of shmread is zero-character end-padded.
substr($buff, index($buff, "\0")) = "";
print "un" unless $buff eq $message;
print "swell\n";
print "deleting shm $id\n";
shmctl($id, IPC_RMID, 0) || die "shmctl: $!";
Here's an example of a semaphore:
use IPC::SysV qw(IPC_CREAT);
my $IPC_KEY = 1234;
my $id = semget($IPC_KEY, 10, 0666 | IPC_CREAT);
defined($id) || die "semget: $!";
print "sem id $id\n";
Put this code in a separate file to be run in more than one process.
Call the file take:
# create a semaphore
my $IPC_KEY = 1234;
my $id = semget($IPC_KEY, 0, 0);
defined($id) || die "semget: $!";
my $semnum = 0;
my $semflag = 0;
# "take" semaphore
# wait for semaphore to be zero
my $semop = 0;
my $opstring1 = pack("s!s!s!", $semnum, $semop, $semflag);
# Increment the semaphore count
$semop = 1;
my $opstring2 = pack("s!s!s!", $semnum, $semop, $semflag);
my $opstring = $opstring1 . $opstring2;
semop($id, $opstring) || die "semop: $!";
Put this code in a separate file to be run in more than one process.
Call this file give:
# "give" the semaphore
# run this in the original process and you will see
# that the second process continues
my $IPC_KEY = 1234;
my $id = semget($IPC_KEY, 0, 0);
die unless defined($id);
my $semnum = 0;
my $semflag = 0;
# Decrement the semaphore count
my $semop = -1;
my $opstring = pack("s!s!s!", $semnum, $semop, $semflag);
semop($id, $opstring) || die "semop: $!";
The SysV IPC code above was written long ago, and it's definitely clunky
looking. For a more modern look, see the IPC::SysV module.
A small example demonstrating SysV message queues:
use IPC::SysV qw(IPC_PRIVATE IPC_RMID IPC_CREAT S_IRUSR S_IWUSR);
my $id = msgget(IPC_PRIVATE, IPC_CREAT | S_IRUSR | S_IWUSR);
defined($id) || die "msgget failed: $!";
my $sent = "message";
my $type_sent = 1234;
msgsnd($id, pack("l! a*", $type_sent, $sent), 0)
|| die "msgsnd failed: $!";
msgrcv($id, my $rcvd_buf, 60, 0, 0)
|| die "msgrcv failed: $!";
my($type_rcvd, $rcvd) = unpack("l! a*", $rcvd_buf);
if ($rcvd eq $sent) {
print "okay\n";
} else {
print "not okay\n";
}
msgctl($id, IPC_RMID, 0) || die "msgctl failed: $!\n";
NOTES
Most of these routines quietly but politely return "undef" when they
fail instead of causing your program to die right then and there due to
an uncaught exception. (Actually, some of the new Socket conversion
functions do croak() on bad arguments.) It is therefore essential to
check return values from these functions. Always begin your socket
programs this way for optimal success, and don't forget to add the -T
taint-checking flag to the "#!" line for servers:
#!/usr/bin/perl -T
use v5.36;
use sigtrap;
use Socket;
BUGS
These routines all create system-specific portability problems. As
noted elsewhere, Perl is at the mercy of your C libraries for much of
its system behavior. It's probably safest to assume broken SysV
semantics for signals and to stick with simple TCP and UDP socket
operations; e.g., don't try to pass open file descriptors over a local
UDP datagram socket if you want your code to stand a chance of being
portable.
AUTHOR
Tom Christiansen, with occasional vestiges of Larry Wall's original
version and suggestions from the Perl Porters.
SEE ALSO
There's a lot more to networking than this, but this should get you
started.
For intrepid programmers, the indispensable textbook is Unix Network
Programming, 2nd Edition, Volume 1 by W. Richard Stevens (published by
Prentice-Hall). Most books on networking address the subject from the
perspective of a C programmer; translation to Perl is left as an
exercise for the reader.
The IO::Socket(3) manpage describes the object library, and the
Socket(3) manpage describes the low-level interface to sockets. Besides
the obvious functions in perlfunc, you should also check out the modules
file at your nearest CPAN site, especially
<https://www.cpan.org/modules/00modlist.long.html#ID5_Networking_>. See
perlmodlib or best yet, the Perl FAQ for a description of what CPAN is
and where to get it if the previous link doesn't work for you.
Section 5 of CPAN's modules file is devoted to "Networking, Device
Control (modems), and Interprocess Communication", and contains numerous
unbundled modules numerous networking modules, Chat and Expect
operations, CGI programming, DCE, FTP, IPC, NNTP, Proxy, Ptty, RPC,
SNMP, SMTP, Telnet, Threads, and ToolTalk--to name just a few.
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